Strings, Branes, Dimensions and SUSY

 

Strings, Branes, Dimensions and SUSY

What Does All of This Mean, A Reality Check for Our Universe

Strings, Branes, Dimensions and SUSY

 INTRODUCTION

String theory is the most commonly known modern physics theory to the average person. What makes string theory so fascinating to people is its strange assessment of what, and how, all of the matter in universe is created. Specifically, the strings in string theory are only a single dimension. These single dimension strings make up the elementary particles that in turn make up everything in the universe. The second most attention grabbing commonly known part of string theory is that it exists in 11 dimensions. And, that most of these 11 dimensions are folded up and live in a space smaller than the space between the atoms that make up all of the matter in the universe.

The less commonly known, but just as important parts of string theory, are branes and SUSY; where SUSY stands for Super-Symmetry. SUSY is most commonly pronounced as something along the lines of Sue-See

All of the elementary particles that make up everything in the universe, and are made up of one-dimensional strings, are contained in what is commonly referred to as the standard model. Currently there are at least 17 elementary particles covered in the standard model. Some consider the Higgs Boson to also be a part of the standard model. One of the basic standard model particles is the gluon. However, there are 8 different gluons. So there are some cases that consider all of the gluons to be individual elementary particles. 

Putting everything together, and depending on the point of view, the standard model could consist of 17, 18, 24 or 25 different elementary particles. For the purposes of this paper, the number of standard model particles is not important. Because, the information that will be covered in this paper applies to all of the elementary particles independently of how many there may be. SUSY is a major part of string theory because it is directly related to the standard model of particles. In essence SUSY invents a number of additional elementary particles that more than doubles the current number of elementary particles. SUSY is also considered to be an integral part of the the current string theory model. If SUSY fails, than the current version of string theory could also fail. 

The last item of string theory to be covered in this paper are branes. The short answer of what branes are, branes are a two dimensional sheets that also exist in the extra dimensions of space that the strings exist in. The one dimensional strings have various interaction with the two-dimensional branes.

This paper will a provide simple evaluation of the four items of concern, Strings, Branes, Dimensions and SUSY, for their consistency with the universe we live in. The reader can use the information to form their own opinions about these items individually, or all together to decide if string theory is consistent with the reality of our universe.

 DISCUSSION

String theory was first proposed in 1968 as a one-dimensional mathematical model. This is the first point that needs to be made, as a mathematical model string theory can never be experimentally proven. Its reality and existence is completely described in the mathematics of string theory. This mathematical description for string theory is then put forth as a reality of our universe. Since there are no experiments or physical tests for string theory the validity of string theory is current simply accepted because the math says it is valid. 

In general, string theory is the theory that all elementary particles, the ones of the standard model, are actually one dimensional strings. These one-dimensional strings vibrate at different frequencies where the frequency of vibration accounts for the different elementary particles. The attention grabbing, fascinating part of string theory, is that these vibrating strings that produce the particles that make up everything in the known universe exist in a 10, 11 or 26 dimensional reality. That is, the mathematics of string theory is only valid in one of these 3 listed realities. 

Digging a little deeper into how many dimensions can exist where string theory can live, the math associated with string theory puts the number at ten to the 500th power of dimensions. That is a the number 1 followed by 500 zeros. That is a lot of possible dimension to consider for string theory. The current conclusion is that the strings in string theory exist in a 10 dimensional reality. In other words, one case, out of a number of possibilities so big it is unimaginable, has been chosen. And, it is the simplest of all of the possible cases.

The current universe where everything, including us, exists has 3 dimensions of space and one dimension of time for four total dimensions. So where are the other 6 dimensions of space of string theory? They are folded up or rolled up into a space so small that it could fit in the distance between the atoms of a molecule. This distance has an official designation, it is called the Planck Length. This Planck Length is known as the smallest distance known to science. That is, nothing can go smaller than this distance. So the extra 6 dimensions of string theory, along with all of the strings needed for the mass of our universe exist in the smallest space known in the universe.

So, now we have one-dimensional strings, existing in the 6 infinitely large dimensions space that exist in the smallest space known. Given these characteristics the first and simplest question to ask, what are the strings made of? What is it that exists in the 6 dimensions of space folded up into the smallest distance known that can build the strings necessary to build the universe we live in? As far as I can tell there is no answer to this question. Part of the reason for no answer maybe based on the next question.

Just what is a “one-dimension” string, or any “one-dimensional” object for that matter? When looking at an object, and a string has to be an object, that is one dimension, it is best visualized as a line. This is consistent with what a string would look like. In one dimension you can only move in one direction. That is, forward or backward. To visualize one-dimension, consider a line drawn on a piece of paper. This is in essence one-dimension. Remember where this line is on the piece of paper. Now completely erase this line on the paper so you can’t see it. You now have what a one-dimensional string would be and what it would look like in reality.

The line you drew on a piece of paper was actually in three-dimension. The line on the piece of paper had a width to it. It was a very small width, but a width nonetheless. This width is in fact a second dimension. In order to be one-dimension, there can be zero width. Also, the pen or pencil left a mark on top of the paper. This is a height. Again, a very small height, but some amount of height. This height is a third dimension. Again, all height has to be removed in order to have one-dimension. The nothingness left of the line that you drew on the paper is one dimension 

Once you loss height and width in the reality of our three-dimensional universe you are literally left with nothing. The question now, can something that is only a single dimension actually exist in our reality? Some related additional questions, what is it that makes up or causes nothing to exist? Maybe nobody knows what strings are made of because in reality they are nothing. And, how does a one-dimensional nothing suddenly pickup two more dimensions in order to become the reality that is the mass that makes up everything in the universe? Additionally, how does this one-dimensional nothing move out of the 6 infinite dimensions rolled up into the smallest space known in the universe into the three dimension of the real universe? Does the string transform from one-dimension to a three-dimensional particle before it leaves the 6 dimensions, or after it comes into the three dimensional universe?

There are many more questions about strings, but the discussion should move to branes. In general they are similar to strings except that they are two dimensional objects that exist in the 6 extra dimensions that are folded up into the smallest space known. Strings interact with branes in different ways. Like strings, there is no answer for what branes are made of. 

So, what does two dimensions look like? This time take a piece of paper and place it on a hard surface. When you look at the top of that sheet of paper you see two dimensions. That is, you can move or draw a line on the surface of the paper that goes up and down on the paper and and a completely separate line that goes left and right across the paper. And these two lines can be perpendicular to each other. That is, if they crossed each other than the intersection where they cross has four 90 degree angles. But, just like the one-dimensional line before, the sheet of paper has height. Again, a very, very small height but some height nonetheless. So if you remove the height of the paper, once again you are left with just another nothing.

Here is another way you can think of two dimensions. If we take a bunch of our one dimensional lines and put them right next to each other, we can build a sheet. In other words, we can take a bunch of the one-dimensional strings, lay them out next to each other and build a two-dimensional brane. But, if the strings are nothing in our three-dimensional universe, then the branes must also be nothing. Specifically, you have a situation where you used one set of nothing to build another a bigger set of nothing. How can this be done in our universe? There is an additional problem, branes are not strings, they do different things. But, it was just shown how strings can make a brane. All of this coming from nothing, and all of it occurring in the smallest space known in the universe.

The above discussion of one-dimensional strings and two-dimensional branes provides insight about lower dimensional objects and their existence with respect to our three-dimensional universe. That is, there is the question as to how one and two dimensional “things” can exist at all. Furthermore, if they do exist, strings and branes exist in 6 dimensions that have to be infinitely large but are rolled up into the smallest space known to exist in this universe. Additionally, this total of a 10 dimensional universe that the current string theory model indicates we exist in is one of currently discovered 3 possible multidimensional universes where string theory can live. It is possible that there are far more than three possible multidimensional universes where string theory can thrive.

Recall that the current string theory mathematics shows that the number of possible universes that can exist is a one followed by 500 zeros. It is virtually impossible to check the mathematics of these possible dimensional universes for their compatibility with string theory. In other words, it is possible that a universe of over 250 dimensions is consistent with the current string theory model. Having a universe of over 250 dimensions would mean that over 246 infinite dimensions exists in the smallest space known in the universe. One of the first questions that comes to mind now is how does a one dimensional string move from the more than 246 rolled up dimensions, into our large three dimensional universe?

The last part of string theory to discuss in this paper is SUSY, or SuperSymmetry. SUSY was first proposed in 1977, 9 years after string theory. SUSY, or some version of it, is an integral part of the current string theory model. SUSY is generally based upon the concept of symmetry which is a basic property in physics. In general, symmetry says if one thing exists, then so should a related symmetrical item. The most common example, we can move forward in space. So we should also be able to move rearward in space. Which we can do. If there is a left, than there is also a right, if there is an up, than there is also a down. So, SUSY takes the concept of symmetry and applies it to the particles of the standard model thus more than doubling the current standard model.

On the left, the particles of the Standard Model. (The graviton is theoretical as it is currently undiscovered.) On the right are the corresponding particles of Supersymmetry. (CLAIRE DAVID/CERN/)

So what are the concerns about SUSY, the first is that the idea of symmetry to the standard model particles has already been handled. The real symmetry for the standard model that is already known about comes in the form of the “anti” particles that exist for all of the standard model particles. An example, consider the most commonly known particle in the standard model, the electron. Its anti-article is the positron, which exists in our universe. This means that it can be argued that the symmetry associated with Supersymmetry is a manufactured symmetry rather than a necessary symmetry associated with the standard model. 

There is another significant issue associated with Supersymmetry that must be considered when evaluating its consistency and reality. That is, none of the Supersymmetry particles, also known as Sparticles, as shown above, have been discovered.

When Supersymmetry was first proposed sparticles were exactly the same size, mass and energy of their corresponding standard model particles. For example, the selectron was exactly the same size, mass and energy as the electron. The difference was that the selectron had a different function than the electron. Since all of the sparticles had the same physical characteristics as the standard model particles, all of the sparticles should have been discovered within our universe. However, they have yet to be discovered. 

To account for the lack of discovery of sparticles in experiments, the original supersymmetry theory was modified by making all of the sparticles slightly larger than their standard model counterparts. However, these larger sparticles also were not found in experiments. So more modifications to the sparticles have been proposed to account for the fact that none of them have been found. Despite all of the modifications made, to date none of the sparticles has been discovered or seen in particle collisions and experiments.

Given the amount of modifications that have been made to the sparticles to account for their lack of discovery there is another significant problem that needs to be considered. The current characteristics of the sparticles are no longer close to the physical characteristics of the standard model particles. That is, in essence symmetry between particles and sparticles no longer exists. 

One more consideration regarding SUSY, there are multiple questions, unknowns, and things that are not understood associated with the standard model. For example, particles come with a quantum characteristic called spin. Spin has two types, lefthanded and righthanded, and almost all of the particles of the standard model come in both righthanded and lefthanded spin versions. The exception, neutrinos, which are the most common particle in the universe. As you sit here and read this paper billions upon billions of neutrinos are passing through your body. It turns out that all of these neutrinos only come in the lefthanded spin version. There are no righthanded spin neutrinos. So, what kind of spin do the sneutrinos in the sparticle table have, lefthanded like the neutrino, or righthanded due to the symmetry that is the basis of SUSY?

If we don’t know all of the answers to the questions associated with the standard model and its elementary particles, how is it possible to double the size of the current particles without also doubling the problems and the unknowns? There are no answers for this.

String theory has 4 basic and necessary components, strings, branes, dimensions and SUSY. However, when these 4 items are examined it appears that they raise more questions then they provide answers toward understanding string theory in our universe. 

THINKING OUTSIDE OF THE BOX

String theory is all about having 6 infinite dimensions existing within the smallest part of the universe as we know it. If it is possible for one-and two dimensional nothingness strings and branes to exist in 6 infinite dimensions rolled up into the smallest space known, then it should also be possible for our three dimensions to exist with more dimensions that exist above our three dimensional universe.

CONCLUSION

What was covered in this paper are just of the basic, fundamental issues and associated questions regarding string theory. There are so many additional parts and conclusions associated with string theory that are not understood and raise even more questions that currently have no answers. When all things are considered there is a basic question, with so much that is unknown, not understood and questions that have no answers, how can so much time and investment continue to be made in the mathematical model called string theory?

As I said at the beginning of this piece, string theory is a mathematical model that is trying to be used to describe the universe we live in. Given the information covered in this paper and the follow up questions, the final question that has to be asked, how does the math of string theory become the reality of our universe?

Is it possible that it doesn’t?

Steven Guderian, 5.9.23

 

WHITE HOLES, AN UNSTUDIED PHENOMENA OF OUR UNIVERSE

Basic Principles of Physics Tells us They Must Exist, So What do They Look Like?

INTRODUCTION

Black holes, the ultimate enigma in our universe. Science knows so little about them and understands even less. What few facts are known can generally be consider as the subject of fear to many people. That is, the most commonly known piece of information is that black holes have immense gravity. Gravity so strong that not even light can escape from a black hole; hence the name black hole. And, because of this immense gravity black holes simply consume all planets, suns, solar systems and any other mass/matter in the universe that comes into the grasp of the black hole’s gravitational field. In other words, black holes are the bringer of destruction and doom should anything, including our solar system, venture to close to the black hole’s gravitational field.

No matter how black holes are viewed, they are a big part of our universe. Current scientific information is that they are in the center of every spiral galaxy in the universe. And, spiral galaxies are the most common galaxy in our universe. Additionally, black holes have recently been discovered travelling through open space, (see link below). All in all, there are a substantial number of black holes and they can be found in just about every corner of our universe.

However, this is a paper about “white holes.” So why the discussion about black holes? Because to date, no white holes have been identified. It is not that they are not out there, science has simply not taken the time to look at what a white hole maybe and how it would exist. This paper is about taking some of the basic physics we already know, pairing it with black holes so that we can identify white holes.

DISCUSSION

One of the most basic rules, laws or principles of physics is symmetry. In the physics world there are many different kinds of symmetry all of which are an essential part of our discovery and understanding of the workings of our universe. So, what is symmetry? The McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Physics has a 5 pages long definition of symmetry. Other physics reference guides are not any easier to read or understand. However, there is a simple common example of symmetry in peoples everyday lives; if there is a left, there is a right. If there is a forward, there is also a backward. If there is an up, there is a down. In general, symmetry means that if there is one thing, then there is also its opposite.

A more physics sense of symmetry can be found in one of the most commonly known theories, String Theory. A significant part to modern string theory is Super Symmetry, also referred to as SUSY. Associated with string theory are the particles of the standard model. These are the particles that make up all of the matter in our universe, and also account for almost all of the forces known in the universe. According to super symmetry, all of particles of the standard model have an opposite particle that has not yet been discovered. In other words, symmetry is playing a major part in what is commonly known as the biggest theory of the 20th century, string theory, yet none of the symmetric particles as been found even though they should have been discovered long ago.

Side Note: The failure to find the SUSY particles is not a problem with symmetry, it is a problem with string theory. This is another paper by itself.

The above example of super symmetry, with its theorized and yet to be discovered particles, and its direct relationship with string theory, shows the importance of symmetry and its use in physics and theory. Because of symmetry and the existence of black holes, the existence of white holes must be a reality. Furthermore, it is through symmetry that we can not only predict the existence of white holes, we can also predict what they look like.

But what would a white hole in our universe look like and what could it possibly be? The basic physical characteristic of a black hole is it’s possession of immense gravity and mass. So, what could be considered the opposite of immense gravity and mass? The simplest answer is something, or some place that has no gravity and no mass. Are there places in the universe where there are no gravity and mass?

Yes there are.

In reality there are many of them in different forms throughout the universe. Including some right here in our own solar system. They are known as Lagrange points, named after the Mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange who theorized these points in 1771. These points were confirmed to exist in 1906. This shows that the first possible form of a white hole, a LaGrange point, was theorized and eventually discovered long before black holes were theorized and then discovered.

Lagrange points are an astronomical feature that are most commonly known as being a part of the gravitational interaction of a sun and its orbiting planets of solar systems. For us here on earth the current and most logical focus for Lagrange Points are those that exist between the earth and the sun. It should be noted that there are also Lagrange points for the gravitational interaction between the moon and earth as well as all other planets and the sun as well as planets and their moons in our solar system.

The short explanation for LaGrange points; The sun’s gravity pulls on the earth, and all of the other planets, and this is what in essence keeps them in orbit. While the suns gravity is pulling on the earth, the earths gravity is pulling back on the sun in order to help with the stability of earth’s orbit around the sun. The situation is the sun has a gravitational field pulling in one direction while the earth has a gravitational field pulling in the opposite direction. And, these two gravitational fields overlap.

The overlap of the sun and the earths gravitational fields means there can be points where the pull of the earth’s gravity is the same size, or magnitude, as the pull of the sun’s gravity and it is in the opposite direction. In other words, the pull of gravity from the sun and the earth cancel out, and this spot in essence has no gravity. Throughout the universe there are locations, LaGrange points, where a sun and a planets gravity cancels. In fact, LaGrange points will exist anywhere there is an overlap of the opposite directional pull of overlapping gravitational fields.

Recapping, the basic physical characteristics of a black hole in our universe is that it has immense mass and gravity. Yes, black holes eat up all matter around them, but that it is not a physical characteristic of the black hole. Rather, that is a physical characteristic of the universe environment the black hole exists in. And, from the basic principle of symmetry it is known that the opposite of a black hole, a white hole in this case, must also exist. Furthermore a white hole must be a location where no mass and no gravity exist.

LaGrange points matches the required physical characteristics of what a white hole should look like based upon the physical characteristics of a black hole. However, LaGrange points are not the only areas of no gravity within our universe.

Current information is that not only do the majority of spiral galaxies have a black hole in their center, they also have a Dark Matter Halo. The dark matter halo gravitationally interacts with the mass/matter of the galaxy it surrounds in order to account for the motion of the mass/matter of the galaxy. In other words, the gravitational interaction between the dark matter halo and the mass/matter of a galaxy is similar to that of a sun and a planet, there is an overlap of gravitational fields with opposite directions of pull. The difference is that the dark matter halo has 3 spatial dimensions in order to account for the 3 spatial dimensions of a galaxy. This means that any “LaGrange Point” between the galactic dark matter halo and the galactic mass must also have 3 spatial dimensions. In other words, this must be a “LaGrange Space” instead of a LaGrange point.

For additional information refer to Dark Matter and LaGrangian Space; https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-and-lagrangian-space-54e2ac7461db

THINKING OUTSIDE OF THE BOX

One of the predictions of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity is gravitational waves. The current theory is that the acceleration of a massive object, like a black hole, neutron star or other special type of star moving through spacetime can cause gravitational waves. So, if massive objects, effect spacetime doesn’t symmetry dictate that a LaGrange point and LaGrange space white hole will also cause an effect moving through spacetime? Would this movement cause the opposite of a gravitational wave, like maybe a gravitational vacuum or something else? Maybe LaGrange points and LaGrange space can also cause gravitational waves. LaGrange Points and LaGrange space white holes provide another opportunity to dig deeper into understanding our universe.

CONCLUSIONS

The basic physical characteristics of a black hole in our universe is that it has immense gravity and mass. From the basic principle of symmetry it is known that the opposite of a black hole, a white hole in this case, must also exist. Furthermore, a white hole must be a location with there is no mass and where no, or very little gravity must exist. LaGrange points and Lagrange Space exist throughout the universe just like black holes and they matches the symmetry required physical characteristics for a white hole. Additionally, gravity itself is responsible for black holes and for LaGrange points and LaGrange space. Just like a black hole will be caused any time there is a high amount of mass creating a strong gravitational field that meet specific requirements. LaGrange points and LaGrange space white holes will be caused when certain requirements are met in overlapping, opposite direction gravitational fields.

Side note; yes, black holes eat up all matter around them. Because of this some hypotheses for white holes have suggested that they spit out mass/matter and space. However, the robust appetite of mass/matter for black holes is not a physical characteristics of the black hole. Rather, the consumption of mass/matter is a physical characteristic of the universe environment the black hole exists in. The immense gravity of a black hole gobbles up mass/matter because the universe makes mass/matter available to be gobbled up by the black hole’s gravity.

There is one last physical characteristics associated with LaGrange Points and Lagrange Space white holes that needs to be discussed, and that has to do with Einstein’s Equivalence Principle. The reduced to zero gravity that is associated with LaGrange points and LaGrange space white holes has to have the opposite characteristics of high gravity of black holes. The high gravity of black holes slows time and shortens distance. This is a direct application of Einstein’s Equivalence Principle. Therefore, LaGrange points and LaGrange space white holes must have extended distances and an increased rate of time.

Black holes are not well understood because once you get past what is known as the event horizon nothing, including light and information can escape. Maybe LaGrange points and LaGrange space white holes are not as elusive as black holes. In other words, maybe it is easier to study and learn about LaGrange points and LaGrange space white holes and then use symmetry to tell more about the inside workings of black holes.

Why Not?

https://www.livescience.com/moving-supermassive-black-hole.html

 Steve Guderian, 4-8-2023

 

DARK MATTER, A FUNCTION OF SPACE

An Alternative to a Dark Matter Particle

 

INTRODUCTION

In the physics world a comment often stated is “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.” This is in essence a true statement. However, it is not a completely true statement. At some point in time the absence of evidence can, and in many cases does, reveal the fact that something is absent and/or does not exist. The question is, at what point does the “absence of evidence” become the reality that something being looked for simply does not exist?

This is the situation of dark matter today.

To date all of the experiments looking for dark matter have failed to find dark matter or any evidence that it exists in the particle form being looked for. At some point in time the ongoing failure of the current dark matter search experiments has to at least question if dark matter is in fact a particle. And, that maybe it is time to look for another form of dark matter while continuing to still look for a dark matter particle.

This paper is looking at a different explanation for dark matter.

DISCUSSION

Dark matter what is it? The answer to this question is one of the most sought after answers in physics today. Because, an answer here opens up a whole new world of physics. The problem with finding an answer to this question is how do you look for something that you literally know almost nothing about? If almost nothing is known about dark matter, than how is it possible to know that it exists? In the case of dark matter, if it doesn’t exist then most everything known about gravity is wrong.

What is known about dark matter is that something is there that gravitationally interacts with the visible matter in the universe. More gravity is necessary in order to explain how our current universe is working. So, the name for whatever exist in the universe to account for the additional gravity necessary for the universe to work is dark matter. However, other than gravity nothing else can be determined about dark matter because it does not interact with anything in any other way. It cannot be seen in any other way other than through gravity.

So, if you are trying to find something that you cannot see, you virtually know nothing about, and other than gravity it does not physically interact with anything that is currently known, how do you start your search? The best place to start is what you know best and has been the most successful. In this case, the known physics that explains most of the universe and is for the most part well understood and successful is the Standard Model.

The short story for the standard model is there are 17 or 18 different particles that make up all of the mass/matter that we know of in the universe. The difference in the number is whether or not you count the Higgs Boson. For this paper it does not matter if the Higgs Boson is counted in the mix of particles or not counted.

The key word here is particle. For about the last 50 or so year, since the discovery of the first quarks, modern physics has been all about particles. Multiple particle colliders have been built to crash particles together in order to see what come out of the collisions, and to try and better understand our current knowledge of the particles we know about. One of the main purposes of particle colliders is to also discover new particles.

Probably the most well known, and most expensive, modern theory is String Theory. The key ingredient for the success of string theory is Super-Symmetry. The basic thing about super-symmetry is that it more than doubles the size of the current number of standard model particles. In other words, the hunt is on at the particle colliders in order to find a lot more particles.

SIDE NOTE: So far none of the particles associated with super-symmetry have been discovered. Under the original theory the super-symmetry particles should have been seen a long time ago at the CERN Super Collider. Since the particles have yet to be found, the physical characteristics of the particles keep changing to account for why they have not been found. One has to wonder if maybe there is a problem with super-symmetry since it has to keep being revised in order to account for the lack of any of the new theorized particles.

So, when history is considered along with the current most popular theory, the status and the importance placed on “particles” is clear. That is, everything has to be a particle, even all of the things that modern science knows nothing about. In other words, current modern theory says that dark matter is a particle. However, the is zero evidence that dark matter is, or even has to be, a particle. The fact of the matter is that maybe the evidence is showing that dark matter is not a particle.

Over the last 30 plus years there have been many hypothesis as to what kind of particle dark matter must be. The following is a particle list;

Dark Photons, normal photons have no mass, but these are photons that have a very tiny mass. A mass so small that it is 20 orders of magnitude smaller than an electron. For perspective, 20 orders of magnitude is a little less than a Sextillion, which is a trillion billion. In other words, for every single electron in existence in our universe there are a trillion billion dark photons. Furthermore, dark matter represents 85% of the mass/matter of the universe. Based on the total amount of dark photons that would have to exist our universe would exist in a dark photon soup.

WIMPS, Weakly Interacting Massive Particles. Saying it is a “Massive” particle means that it is bigger than any other particle that is currently known. How much bigger? There are some estimates but this is an unanswered question.

SIMPS, Strongly Interacting Massive Particles. Basically a WIMP only now it has a strong interaction.

GIMPS, Gravitationally Interacting Massive Particles. This particle interacts gravitationally with anything.

Heavy Neutrinos, Right Handed Neutrinos, Sterile Neutrinos, heavy neutrinos speaks for itself. It has neutrino like properties but it weighs more than a normal neutrino. If it weighs more than a normal neutrino, how can you call it a neutrino? Why isn’t it just another particle with a different name added to the list? Right handed neutrinos are hypothesized because currently in our universe there are only left handed neutrinos while all other particles come in left and right handed versions. (Left or right handedness is a quantum property of particles. Looking at left-handed asymmetry within our universe is a paper all on its own.) Sterile Neutrinos are hypothesized to be a fourth “flavor” that Neutrinos can morph into and then morph back to their original flavor. (The standard model has three flavors or generations of neutrinos) One thing to keep in mind about any kind of neutrinos as dark matter particle candidates, there would have to be a little over 15 times as many dark matter neutrinos as normal neutrinos. This would in essence violate the principle of symmetry.

SIDE NOTE: The above listed troubles with neutrinos being a dark matter particle is just a small portion of the unanswered questions and problems for some type of neutrino to be a dark matter particle candidate. Listing the issues with neutrinos being a dark matter particle is a separate dedicated paper.

HYPER, HighlY Interactive ParticlE Relics. In short, this theory basically says that dark matter had a variable gravity that changed with time as the universe progressed. This change requires another particle to mediate the change, but what this other particle is and its properties are not stated. But it is mathematically determined that this particle has a mass size within in the range of the current dark matter detection experiments.

AXIONS, This particle was theorized in 1977 in order to solve another significant problem in modern physics. As the properties of the Axion were theorized it was also hypothesized that the axion could also account for dark matter. The Axion is estimated to be about one-10 billionth the mass of an electron. Original estimates had the Axion at about half this size. Again, considering the Axion size and 85% more additional mass it must account for, the universe would be an Axion Soup.

This is a partial list of the various particles that have been hypothesized for being dark matter. Modern physics has thought up all of these possible particle solutions for dark matter. As one type of dark matter particle is not found, better but different particles are hypothesized in order to account for the lack of discovery. Despite 30 years of building bigger and better search mechanism the search for any dark matter particle has failed to detect anything. However, the types of particles dark matter could be shows no signs of slowing down.

So here is the most basic question that needs to be answered, how do these hypothetical particles actually make up dark matter? The dark matter in the universe is basically clumped throughout the universe, and it makes up the dark matter halos around galaxies. So how do dark matter particles travel throughout the universe without joining some clump or galactic halo? That is, how do dark matter particles travel through galactic halos and dark matter clumps and keep on going without being stopped? How come dark matter particles do not interact with normal mass in the middle of galaxies and from clumps in the middle of a galaxy? For example how come there is no dark matter clumps or halos associated with black holes?

Simply put, modern physics is searching for a dark matter particle but does not know or understand how this particle will actually work as dark matter within our universe. How do you look for and try to find a particle, or anything for that matter, when you do not know how it works? How do you come up with a solution for dark matter, when so little about it is actually known? More importantly, how do you justify dark matter being a particle when it does so many things that conflict with being a particle?

Besides a particle, what else could dark matter be? to answer this question it is necessary to build from our basic knowledge of the universe and follow the clues nature gives us. So what do we know?

The most basic fact is that the space of the universe is expanding. For the most part all galaxies are moving away from each other and the distance between them is expanding. However, the space within galaxies is stable. Our solar system is not moving away from the center of the galaxy. Currently the only known cosmic property separating the space of the universe from the space of galaxies is galactic Dark Matter halos. The most reasonable conclusion is that dark matter must somehow be keeping galactic space from expanding like the universe space. Dark Matter; A Galactic Dyson Sphere: https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-a-galactic-dyson-sphere-3a88908c959e

Building on the above information, the dark matter halos along with the galaxies they embed are moving with the expanding space of the universe. This represents three possibilities;

1. Dark matter is actually embedded in the universe space,
2. Dark matter floats on the universe space,
3. Dark matter sticks to the universe space.

Each of these tree options are valid and can be evaluated on for their own merits and potential. However, looking at the three above options, the simplest case is that dark matter is embedded and/or is part of the universe space. Following the simplest case is the best option to start with.

A more detailed discussion on these three options can be found in the paper, Dark Matter and What it Does With Our Universe: https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-and-what-it-does-with-our-universe-c8e861c77933

Dark matter has other universe related characteristics associated with it. It interacts with itself. That is dark matter interacts with other dark matter. It is sticky and flexible. These physical universe related characteristics are evident in the various stages and types of colliding galaxies.

A more detailed discussion on these characteristics can be found in the paper: Dark Matter: What is its Purpose: https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-what-is-its-purpose-622c4ea1fd8e

An evaluation of the information covered above clearly reveals that Dark matter is very distinct and unique in many ways. And that trying to define dark matter as a particle represents, and creates, a number of significant questions and issues that have no answers. None of the theoretical dark matter particles discussed above, nor any of the theoretical dark matter particles not covered in this paper, provides a clean, clear solution for dark matter as a particle. In other words, dark matter as a particle does not answer any of the questions posed in this paper. Dark matter as a particle also cannot account for the actual currently known physical characteristics of dark matter as it interacts with the universe, normal matter and itself.

If dark matter is not a particle, than what is it?

There are no clean answers to this question. If it is something that science/physics does not know about or understand at this time then it is necessary to wait until more information becomes available. But, the universe is not out of options just yet as to what dark matter maybe. Maybe dark matter is part of, or directly associated with, space itself. This would be consistent with the information just discussed.

Space is not empty. This includes the expanding areas of large voids between galaxies. Modern physics tells us that what is thought of as empty space is actually dynamic. Relativity gives us the idea of the “fabric” of spacetime. That is, space is bent, warped or curved as a response to the gravity of a massive body such as a sun or a planet and especially around a black hole. The stronger the gravity is from a massive body, the greater the warping/curving of the “fabric” of spacetime. It is this warping/curving of space caused by our sun, and the planets themselves, that sets up and allows for the stable orbits of the planets in the solar system.

Also, consider quantum mechanics. Current field theory says that space is filled with fields and energy. In modern theory it is actually possible for particles and interactions to borrow energy from space/fields. Additionally, virtual particles are constantly popping in and out of existence in empty space. Additionally, space is expanding. This means that all of the fields and energy embedded in space are also expanding. Current modern theory is that the energy density of space is constant. This means that energy must be flowing into the expanding empty space. The big question is where is this energy coming from? Currently there are no answers or theories for this question.

Space is dynamic, it can bend, curve and warp. There is also a constant influx of energy through out the universe as it expands. In other words there is a lot about the universe space that we simply do not understand and have answers or theories for. Dark matter is another one of these things about the space of the universe that is simply not understood. Given all that we don’t know and understand, along with what we do know and understand, science is probably looking for dark matter in the wrong place. Rather than being a particle, there is a strong potential that Dark Matter is a function of space itself.

THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX

There is another area for consideration, the space of the universe is expanding. The current theory is this expansion is being driven by dark energy. Simply put, the current theory is that dark energy is causing the universe space to grow. How is dark energy doing this? Nobody knows. What if the energy associated with the growing fields and energy of empty space is dark energy? And what if this growing dark energy that is part of fields and space itself is actually pushing on space causing it to grow? If dark energy is actually pushing space apart this can mean that dark matter may also be another part of the space of the universe in a manner like fields and energy. That is, dark matter is “A Function of Space.”

One other outside of the box thought, dark energy, like dark matter, is also part of total amount of gravity in the universe. In fact it is the biggest part. What if dark matter is simply another form of dark energy? As dark energy moves through the space of the universe and it starts to interact with galaxies and other mass it “hardens” giving us the “dark matter” we currently see.

CONCLUSIONS

Today’s science has been looking for a dark matter particle for over 30 years. As the searches fails to find any dark matter particle candidates, new exotic theories involving new exotic particles are theorized in order to maintain a search for a dark matter particle. In other words, in the eyes of modern science dark matter must be a particle. There are no other possible theories. A portion of the theorized dark matter particles and exotic new dark matter particle theories were covered in this paper.

The question that has to be asked is how long does the search for a dark matter particle go on, and how many new exotic dark matter particle theories have to come forward, and also fail, before science starts to think that maybe dark matter is not a particle? The time has come to start looking at dark matter as being something other than “another” particle in the modern science zoo of theoretical particles waiting to be discovered. As Dr. Hossenfelder has stated, the current Standard Model of Particles is working just fine and doesn’t need to be complicated by another and/or more particles; see the note below.

NOTE: Sabina Hossenfelder, Ph.D, put out a video titled What is Going Wrong with Particle Physics? (This is why I lost faith in science) that talks about this very topic: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lu4mH3Hmw2o

Modern science has clearly discovered that the space of the universe is dynamic in many ways. It is far more than simply just empty space between galaxies and galactic clusters. It is time to look at space itself as being a potential solution to the dark matter problem. Those who still believe that dark matter is a particle can continue to search for this elusive dark matter particle. Science is about imagination, investigation and discovery. It is possible to research two competing theories at the same time. In fact, many times it is necessary to look at a competing scientific hypothesis. The evidence is there, it has been provided by the nature of our universe itself, it is possible that dark matter is a function of space itself.

Steve Guderian, March 7, 2023

DARK MATTER, DOES IT ALSO ROTATE LIKE THE GALAXY IT SURROUNDS?

Is It Possible to Even Answer This Question? Is An Answer Necessary?

INTRODUCTION

Although there is still some discussion as to the existence of dark matter, based on the available evidence and observations, the astrophysics community along with the physics community in general have basically accepted dark matter as being a real substance in our universe. Additionally, previous papers I have written provide strong support for dark matter galactic halos. The other papers I have authored provide evidence, information and the basis for the discussion in this paper.

Based on the astrophysics observations of galaxies, the dark matter halo surrounding galaxies is responsible for establishing the rotational characteristics and stability seen in galaxies. That is, the dark matter halo gravitationally interacts with the normal matter of the galaxy surrounded by the dark matter halo. The gravitational interaction between the galactic normal matter and surrounding halo of dark matter represents a direct physical connection between galactic normal matter and the galactic dark matter halo. The direct connection between dark matter and normal matter in galaxies considered with the rotation of the normal matter leads to the question, does the galactic dark matter halo also rotate?

DISCUSSION

Currently there are no viable hypothesis or theories as to what is causing the galaxies of the universe to move away from each other. Or, how galaxies interact with the expanding space of the universe. In other words, the current scientific position is that the universe is expanding and galaxies are moving away from each other as a result of the universe expansion. No direct cause for this movement has been scientifically established.

Therefore, before it is possible to discuss any possible rotation of the dark matter halo, the connection between the dark matter halo and the expanding space of the universe needs to be evaluated. The initial hypothesis that was put forth and that ultimately led to this paper, is the first necessary building block for this discussion and states as follows:

The space of our universe is and has been expanding since the very beginning. However, the space within our galaxy, and most other galaxies in our universe is not expanding, it is stable. Something has to be enveloping and protecting galactic space from the ongoing expansion of the surrounding space of the universe. The Dark Matter Halo represents the galactic/universe property necessary to separate and protect stable galactic space from the expanding universe space.

The paper discussing this hypothesis: Dark Matter: A Galactic Dyson Sphere, https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-a-galactic-dyson-sphere-3a88908c959e

Building further on the relationship between dark matter halos and the space of the universe, it is currently accepted that the universe is expanding. And, current observations of galaxies throughout the universe shows that they too are also moving. In general this motion is for galaxies to be moving away from each other. This galactic motion is consistent the expanding space of the universe. However, the space within galaxies, and therefore within the dark matter halos is not expanding. This leads to the only possible conclusion that dark matter halos and their embedded galaxies as a whole, are moving as a single entity with the expanding space of the universe.

One additional straightforward observation supporting a direct relationship between dark matter halos and space of the universe, there is no other mechanism that can adequately account for the general motion of the majority of the galaxies away from each other. That is, the current observed motion of the galaxies within our universe is most consistent with there being a direct connection or interaction between galactic dark matter halos and the expanding space of our universe.

At this point it is necessary to formalize a hypothesis.

HYPOTHESIS

A galactic dark matter halo and the embedded stable space galaxy act together as a single entity in the universe expanding space. Since the dark matter halo encapsulates the normal matter galaxy and its stable space, the dark matter halo is what directly interacts with the expanding space of the universe.

Using this hypothese and moving forward, the paper, Dark Matter and What it Does With Our Universe, https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-and-what-it-does-with-our-universe-c8e861c77933 provides a discussion regarding three possible options as to how a galactic dark matter halo interacts with the expanding space of the universe.

These options are;

1. Dark Matter is actually embedded in the universe space,
2. Dark Matter is “sticking” to the space of the universe,
3. Dark Matter is floating in/on the space of the universe.

Until now the lack of any current hypothesis or theory regarding galactic motion and universe expansion represented a significant issue when looking at any motion of a dark matter galactic halo, such as rotation. That is, there is no current information or research as to how dark matter, in particular dark matter halos, interacted with the expanding universe space. Without any consideration as to how the dark matter halo interacts with the expanding universe space how is it possible to form any conclusions as to whether or not a dark matter halo is rotating like its embedded galaxy? The lack of any information or research reveals the importance of the above hypothesis.

Prior to writing this paper I read multiple papers on the motion of galactic dark matter halos. Some indicated that their paper was based on the galactic halo rotating around the embedded galaxy, others did not use any motion in looking at dark matter halos. The common point in all of the papers is that they all ignored any possible interaction between the dark matter halo and the expanding galactic space.

An additional point, regarding the papers that used rotating galactic halos, they provided no information as how this rotation started with respect to the expanding space of the universe. Or, how the rotating dark matter halo and its embedded galaxy interacted with the expanding space of the universe. Similarly, there was no information or explanation as to how the rotating dark matter halo maintained the stable space in the embedded galaxy. In other words, all of these papers treated dark matter halos and their embedded galaxies as completely independent individual objects. This is not how our universe operates.

The three options listed above represent potential interactions between dark matter halos and the universe’s expanding space in order to account for the movement of galaxies away from each other. That is, these three options correspond with a direct relationship between dark matter and the expanding space of the universe thus accounting for the currently observed motions of galaxies. Since all information and observations are consistent with a direct relationship between dark matter halos and the expanding universe space, this direct relationship must be considered in all evaluations involving dark matter. This includes all theories or hypothesis regarding rotating dark matter halos around their embedded galaxies. Specifically, how the dark matter halo interacts with the expanding space of the universe has to be considered.

Looking at the first option listed above, dark matter is embedded in the expanding universe space.

This is a straight forward evaluation. The expansion of the universe space appears to be uniform throughout the universe. This shows that the expanding space of the universe can be viewed as a single object. If the dark matter halo is embedded in the expanding space of the universe it will in essence be a part of the expanding space and will not be able to rotate.

Regarding the second option, dark matter is “sticking” to the space of the universe.

This is not the same as being embedded. In this case the dark matter halo is simply stuck to some point on the universe space and gets pulled or pushed along with the expansion of the universe. In this instance the dark matter halo would not be a part of the expanding universe space and it may be possible for the dark matter halo to rotate.

As for the third option, dark matter is floating in the space of the universe.

In this case the dark matter halo is simply floating along the top of the expanding universe space. It is not a part of the expanding universe space, rather it is simply moving with the expanding flow of the universe. Since it is not part of the expanding universe space, under these conditions the dark matter halo would be free to rotate.

It turns out that rotation of the dark matter halo is dependent on how a galactic dark matter halo interacts with the expanding universe space. Some types of interactions will allow for rotation while others will not. Given the limited total amount of information known about dark matter, it is not possible at this time to determine which of the three listed interactions occurs. In other words, it is currently not possible to conclude how dark matter moves with the expanding space of the galaxy. This means that any one, all three or any combination of the three possible interactions, covered above, between dark matter and the expanding universe space is possible. Furthermore, given the currently limited state of the information and research on dark matter it is not possible to determine if dark matter does or does not rotate.

THINKING OUTSIDE OF THE BOX

An unexplored area of astrophysics was touched in the above evaluation, what is space? In this case the universe space was looked at as being something that could interact with the dark matter halo. In other words, the universe space has to be something real and tangible. Think of it this way for a moment and consider fish. Fish swim around in different types of water with no real or natural contact with the world outside of the water. For fish, their whole universe is the water they swim around in. From our vantage point we can see the water as a substance. But, the fish don’t have independent knowledge that the water is a substance. Maybe space is our water and we have to get to another vantage point in order to see what the universe space really is.

This next point, LaGrange Space, is not really thinking outside the box. Rather it is applying established physics to the dark matter and normal matter interaction. There is a dark matter halo surrounding a galaxy and this halo gravitationally interacts with the normal galactic matter inside of the halo. The gravity from the dark matter halo pulls on the normal galactic matter, while the gravity of the normal galactic matter pulls back on the dark matter. That is, gravity from these two types of matter pulls in the opposite direction from each other. This means that at some point in the overlapping gravity fields there will a place where the gravity of the dark matter is exactly opposite and the same magnitude as the gravity from the normal matter. Where this occurs the gravity from the galactic matter and the dark matter will cancel each other out resulting in a space with no gravity.

NOTE: There are 5 different point where the gravity of the sun and the gravity of the earth cancel each other out. They are known as LaGrange points. They were first deduced by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1772, and were actually discovered around Jupiter in 1906. In other words, this is old physics.

An additional characteristic that has to also be considered is the gravitational interaction between the dark matter halo and the surrounded normal galactic matter. This means that there are no LaGrange points around the galaxy, instead there must be a Lagrange space that completely encircles the normal mass of the galaxy. This LaGrange space would lie between the dark matter halo and the normal mass of the galaxy.

What makes this LaGrange space interesting is another old principle of physics, Einstein’s Equivalence Principle. This is the one that says that gravity and acceleration are basically the same thing. Basically what this means with respect to LaGrange Space is that in a zero gravity space the flow rate of time should be infinitely long while distance measurements should also be infinitely long.

Think of it this way, it is well known that traveling at the speed of light, and in the vicinity of a black hole and its high gravitational field, time slows down and distances compress. Well, if high gravity does this to time and distance, than no gravity has to do the opposite. If it doesn’t then there is a symmetry violation and this is a major problem.

One more out of the box question comes to mind, if we are in a LaGrange Space, lets think of it as a “Null Space,” does the infinite time and distance measurement also mean travel at an infinite speed? A fair and legitimate question that stems from applying basic physics principles to a real situation in our universe.

CONCLUSION

So, does the galactic dark matter halo rotate like the galaxy it surrounds? With the information that we currently have available it is not possible to answer this question. The evaluation done in this paper shows that dark matter halo rotation may, or may not occur. It all depends on how the dark matter halo interacts with the expanding universe space and this is the information that is currently lacking.

There is an additional conclusion inherent to this paper, this is the first paper to evaluate the available information in order to estimate if there is a relationship between dark matter halos and the expanding space of the universe. Specifically, the above discussion shows that the current facts show that there has to be some type of direct relationship between galactic dark matter halos and the expanding space of our universe. This relationship was memorialized in the hypothesis in the discussion and repeated here;

A galactic dark matter halo and the embedded stable space galaxy act together as a single entity in the universe expanding space. Since the dark matter halo encapsulates the normal mass galaxy and its stable space, the dark matter halo is what directly interacts with the expanding space of the universe.

Even though the question about the rotation of the dark matter halo was not specifically answered in this paper, enough information was covered so that when more dark matter halo and expanding universe space information does comes forward it may be possible to answer the question. In the mean time the investigation into what dark matter does within our expanding space universe, and what it creates must continue.

 

DARK MATTER, WHAT IS IT?

It is called Dark Matter because so far nobody has given it an identity.

INTRODUCTION

The presence of Dark Matter has been established through multiple astronomical observations. Specifically, something helped put galaxies together and is currently holding them together. The something that is holding all of the universe’s galaxies together also bends light that is coming from behind the galaxies. When all of the observed information is put together and evaluated, the most likely conclusion is that there is some type of matter around galaxies that gravitationally interacts with the galaxies while at the same time interacting with the expanding space of the universe.

The problem is that whatever this matter, or mass, may be it cannot be seen. That is, other than gravitationally this mass/matter does not interact with anything else in the universe or anything else that is known about within the universe. Hence the name, Dark Matter.

So we know that this Dark Matter is here in our universe, but we know nothing else about it. This is a bad position to be in because it severely restricts how we can move forward with understanding the basic workings of our universe. But all is not lost. We can evaluate what we do know, or think we might know, as well as the lack of results from current dark matter experiments to see what conclusions, or hypothesis, we can make about Dark Matter. This is the purpose of this paper.

DISCUSSION

This paper is the 4th paper in the series looking at dark matter. The first,

Dark Matter: a Galactic Dyson Sphere, https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-a-galactic-dyson-sphere-3a88908c959e

Is a discussion about what dark matter is doing with galaxies in the universe.

The second paper, Dark Matter, It Has Been Here Since the Beginning, https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-its-been-here-since-the-beginning-2788b4327021

Is a discussion about how all current evidence indicates that dark matter has been around since the time of the big bang.

Dark Matter: What Is It’s Purpose, https://medium.com/@philofysks/dark-matter-what-is-its-purpose-622c4ea1fd8e

Is a discussion about what dark matter does with galaxies in the universe and how it interacts with the universe.

These three prior papers are are building blocks to this paper in trying to use what has been concluded so far, along with other clues as to what dark matter may, or may not be.

Even Nothing Tells Us Something

Although the first indications of dark matter were discovered in 1933, it wasn’t until the around the mid-eighties that dark matter was “accepted” by the science community. One of the first experiments to try in gather information about dark matter was in 1986. So for about the last 36 years large and complex detectors have been built and experiments undertaken in order to find a possible dark matter candidate particle.

It is important to note that despite the fact that there is nothing known about what dark matter actually is, the experiments and detectors are looking for a dark matter particle. This is known because there are hundreds of written research papers and other forms of science communications that have theories about what kind of particle dark matter has to be. Additionally, the Standard Model of Particles is one of today’s most celebrated discoveries so it would appear that particles is form that the scientific community has decided upon as to what dark matter must be.

So far no experiment or detector has been able to find a dark matter particle. Maybe dark matter has some form other than a particle. This means that a dark matter particle, as we think of particles, simply doesn’t exist. Additionally, at the particle level gravity is virtually too weak to detect. In essence when all possible things and information are considered this lack of a particle discovery is telling us that the odds are we are not going to detect any dark matter particles, if they even exist.

THE NEXT CONCLUSIONS

In the first of the previous papers listed above it was shown that the dark matter halo around galaxies was acting as a barrier between the stable space of the galaxies and the expanding space of universe. The second paper listed showed that dark matter had to be around since the beginning stages of the universe, and that it must have assisted in the first clumping of normal matter. From the early relationship of dark matter with the first clumping of normal matter, and to later times in the universe with the collisions of galaxies we can conclude that dark matter must be transmissive to normal matter.

Currently astronomy has discovered multiple instances of past and present galactic collisions. Photographs of these collisions show the robbing and/or exchange of stars, dust and matter between the colliding galaxies. These galactic collisions can only occur if the dark matter allows the normal matter of the galaxies to pass through it.

The above conclusion regarding the transmissibility of normal matter through dark matter in the galactic collisions can be extrapolated back to the first clumping of matter. That is the dark matter in the early universe also had to let the first particles of normal matter pass through so that the normal matter could clump together to form the first stars and galaxies.

So through galactic collisions and the early clumping of matter we can conclude that dark matter has to have the property of transmissibility with respect to normal matter.

Looking at galactic collisions provides us with another property of dark matter, it can interact and combine with itself.

Recent observation in astronomy has shown us the existence of diffuse galaxies. These galaxies are dwarf galaxies in that they are small with a minimal amount of stars, and they do not have a dark matter halo. Although these galaxies have half the number of stars as our Milky Way galaxy they are about the same size as the Milky Way galaxy. In other words, the stars of these galaxies are completely spread out. The conclusion here is that the lack of the dark matter halo has exposed these stars to the expanding space of the universe so the stars of diffuse galaxies are being spread apart with the expanding space of the universe.

There is an additional conclusion associated with these dwarf, diffuse, dark matter free galaxies. The dwarf diffuse galaxies have no dust or other diffuse star forming matter within them. The theory is that diffuse galaxies are the remnants of a collision with a larger galaxy and that in this collision all of the star forming matter and galactic dust was stripped out of the diffuse galaxy and pulled into the larger galaxy. Similarly, the indications are the larger galaxy also stripped away the dark matter from the diffuse dwarf galaxy.

Since the diffuse galaxy lost its dark matter to the other, larger galaxy involved in the collision this shows that dark matter can also be stripped away and then combine with the dark matter in the larger galaxy. Just like normal matter can be stripped out of the diffuse galaxy.

There is another question associated with galactic collisions and the combining of dark matter. Galaxy collision have been occurring within our universe pretty much since the beginning of galaxy formation. In so many of these collisions the galaxies move apart and each maintains some amount of it’s dark matter halo. In other cases the galaxies combine and the dark matter halo transforms into a halo for the combined galaxies. This leads to so many follow up questions; how does the dark matter know what to do when galaxies collide?

Through current observations of galaxy collisions it is possible to show three cases as to what dark matter does:

1. It separates itself into halos around both colliding galaxies
2. It becomes a halo around one of the galaxies, leaving the other galaxy unprotected from the expanding space of the universe.
3. It combines and forms a single halo around both of the colliding galaxies.

NOTE: The stripping, exchanging and combining of dark matter from one galaxy into the other in a collision provides another area for additional discussion, research and hypothesis regarding how dark matter works in our universe.

GOING BACK TO THE BEGINNING

The above conclusions on what dark matter does in galactic collisions are looking at how dark matter is currently working within our universe after the formation of galaxies. But what about the early universe and the formation of galaxies?

It is known that in the early stages of the universe there had to be the formation of clumps of normal matter that would ultimately grow into stars and galaxies. One of the goals has to be to try and understand and/or try and determine how dark matter was working with the early normal matter in order to form normal matter clumps.

With respect to the early universe and the original clumping of matter, the space of the universe was much smaller than it today since the universe has been expanding since the very beginning. This means that it would not be possible for dark matter to start out at the size necessary to form a galactic halo. To the contrary, dark matter itself had to have formed as part of the big bang and formed at the same time as normal matter. One of the possible inferences here is that dark matter would start combining into small halo shapes that would grow as the universe expanded. These early halo shapes would be small enough and would start pulling normal matter in thus allowing it to start forming matter clumps.

As the dark matter halo continues to grow with the expanding universe, it pulls in more and more normal matter resulting in enough matter to form the first planets. The universe continues to grow, so do the dark matter halos thus allowing even more matter to accumulate and start clumping inside the protected space of the dark matter halo. Ultimately the halos reach galactic size with enough normal matter inside to start forming galaxies.

Thinking Outside Of The Box

The general question now is how is it the early dark matter halos grew? Maybe it was through clumping just like the early normal matter.

As was previously stated, the early universe was expanding. The expansion of the early space of the universe will move particles of all kinds further and further apart. This will have an adverse effect on the initial required clumping of any kind of matter. Clumping dark matter can provide a catalysts that limits the effect of the expanding universe space on normal matter. Additionally, it is known that dark matter makes up about 85% of the total matter in the universe while normal matter makes up the remaining 15%. Due to the gravitational interaction between dark matter and normal matter the high amount of dark matter would assist in the clumping of both normal and dark matter.

In order for dark matter to create stable space and protect normal matter from the expanding space so it may start clumping it has to form some type of halo enclosure around the normal matter. So, what it the most simplest way to create a halo, or a hollow sphere, for normal matter? Start out that way. What if dark matter actually starts our as some type of hollow sphere?

As the dark matter starts to clump the size of the hollow sphere within the dark matter also grows thus resulting in a larger halo with a larger open center. This would account for the ability to accept increasing amounts of matter. Current galactic collisions have shown us that dark matter does combine with itself. As for the hollow sphere, this is not that much of a stretch to consider as forming in the early part of the universe. Just look at normal matter.

With out going into details, it is known that normal matter is also a basically a hollow sphere of some sort. Protons and neutrons are both made up of three up and down quarks. However, the combined rest mass of these three quarks is only about 1% of the mass of the proton and neutron. The other 99% of the mass is unknown; however, there are various theories. This means that there is a very large mass difference between the mass of a proton or neutron and the quarks that make up these two particles. In other words, there is a “hole” and all of the protons and neutrons that make up of the matter in the universe.

If normal matter can have a “hole” in it why can’t dark matter?

CONCLUSIONS

As stated earlier in this paper a dark matter particle has not been found. The lack of any finding of a dark matter particle is strong evidence that one does not exist in the manner that physics current understands and identifies particles. Furthermore, if all of the facts are considered, it is not hard to understand that dark matter is in all likelihood not a particle as science currently understands particles. In order to start to understand what dark matter may be, acceptance of the fact that the universe is fascinating and wonderous essential. That is, look outside of the box a what dark matter could be, and all that it does.

It is known that the universe has been expanding since its beginning. It is also known that the distribution of matter/particles, was also smooth throughout the early universe. This means that as the universe expands the amount of matter in any given region becomes less dense. Additionally, at the particle level we know that gravity is barely measurable making it an incredibly weak attractive force. As the matter/particle density in the universe goes down with the expansion of the space of the universe it becomes harder for the matter/particles to clump to start forming stars and galaxies. This would include any particles of dark matter. This is where the higher density of dark matter and its halo shaped construction comes in. Its density gives it a high chance of clumping which allows it to create a non-expanding protected space. This in turn allows normal matter to join in with dark matter. And, as the dark matter halo grows, more matter is brought into the halo. This gives the halo enclosed matter an opportunity to clump and form the first stars and galaxies.

Currently it is not possible to say that dark matter comes in a halo or hollow sphere construction as it basic shape as was put forth as part of this paper. The fact of the matter is that virtually nothing is known about dark matter. So, this fact also means that it is not possible to say that a basic halo shape construction for dark matter does not exist.

Imagination is where new discoveries will be found. It is time to move beyond comfortability of the small amount of physics that is known in today’s universe.

Written By Steve Guderian 9–4–22

 

DARK MATTER IT’S BEEN HERE SINCE THE BEGINNING

 

It is Time to Pay Attention to This Property of the Universe

In my last paper, Dark Matter; A Galactic Dyson Sphere I presented the hypothesis that that the dark matter halo around galaxies protects the stable space within an embedded galaxy from the expanding space of the universe outside of the galaxy. This paper is specifically looking at the beginnings of dark matter.

RECAP

It is important to remember that virtually nothing is known about dark matter. The current theory is that dark matter only interacts with matter gravitationally. This has been determined by the fact that galaxies do not contain enough visible matter to account for the observed motion of stars within galaxies. Based on stellar motion it is estimated that dark matter forms a halo around galaxies and accounts for about 85% of the total mass of the universe. Another more common comparison of normal matter and dark matter, normal matter is estimated to be about 5% of the universe mass energy while dark matter is estimated at about 27% of the universe mass energy. The rest of the universe is dark energy, which is another topic altogether.

Accepting the information regarding gravitational interaction of dark matter with galaxies and the hypothesis regarding galactic stable space, the necessary conclusion is that dark matter is required for galactic formation in our universe. And this dark matter requirement can taken back to the big bang.

DARK MATTER AND THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE

Cosmology has determined that in the early stages of the universe after the big bang two of the conditions present were expansion of the universe, and a smooth, relatively even density of matter within the universe. Information from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), a NASA Explorer mission that launched June 2001, determined the mass density of the early universe as equivalent to just under 6 protons per cubic meter.

Currently it is believed that the first massive stars began to form in our universe around 100–200 million years after the big bang. At around 1 billion years galaxies started to form. The formation of the first stars and later the galaxies required matter to somehow start to clump together. At some point the clump of matter would become large enough that gravity would take over and start to pull more matter into the clump causing gravity to become stronger and thus start pulling in more matter. This cycle would continue until the original small clump of matter became large enough, massive enough to form a star.

The question that comes to mind is what was the catalyst that started the first clump of matter and how did this clump continue to pull in more and more matter?

There are few things that need to be considered with the clumping matter hypothesis for the forming of massive bodies. Gravity is the weakest of the four known forces. The electric force is over 2.40 x 10^40 times larger than the gravitational force. Said another way, the electric force between charged particles is almost a trillion-trillion-trillion-trillion-trillion times stronger than gravity.

The matter that is clumping together to form massive bodies are primarily protons and neutrons, the nucleons of the atoms that are needed to form a massive body. Electrons are also flying around the area and at some point they need to be captured to complete the atoms necessary to start forming matter. Protons have a positive electric charge while neutrons have no electric charge. So, protons and neutrons are not going to be attracted to each other and two protons are going to repel from each other with a force far, far, far greater than the force of gravity. The positive charge of an proton can combine with the negative charge of an electron, but this in essence can just gives us a neutron.

SIDE NOTE: Another consideration through all of this would be how does the W and Z boson interaction come into play with the early matter formation. The one thing that is safe to say is that it would add another complication to clumping of matter.

An additional consideration for the complexity of matter clumping together, the space of the universe is expanding so all of the matter within the universe is moving further and further apart. The mass density discussed above of 6 protons per cubic meter is moving to 5 or 4 protons per cubic meter.

So, where it stands right now the current theory is that gravity, the weakest of the forces is able to overcome all of the problems discussed above in order to start forming clumps of matter/atoms that will grow into stars and galaxies. This is not an impossibility, but based on what has been discussed so far relying on just gravity and normal matter to account for the galaxies in our universe seem to have some significant difficulties to overcome. This is where dark matter comes to the rescue.

Recall that dark matter has a little more than 5 times the the amount of energy and/or gravitation pull of normal matter. So now rather than having 4 to 6 protons per cubic meter there will be an equivalent gravitational mass of 20 to 30 protons. This increase in gravity will help increase the ability of matter to start to clump. Furthermore, the hypothesis for dark matter is that it stabilizes the space it surrounds from expansion. This too will enhance the ability of matter to clump.

So as the normal mater within the dark matter halo grows the dark matter itself will also have to grow. Again, the dark matter has 5 times the gravitational mass as normal mass so as the dark matter halo grows the ability of this clump of normal matter and dark matter to attract more normal matter through gravity also grows. This growth can continue ultimately creating stars and galaxies.

CONCLUSION

The original hypothesis is; “Dark matter protects the stable space of galaxies embedded in the expanding space of the universe.” The discussion above is simply an extrapolation of this hypothesis back to the beginning of the universe. That is, dark matter also had to come about as a result of the big bang. The stabilization of space associated with dark matter embedded in the expanding space of the early universe provides a catalyst and/or a safe space for the clumping of matter. In other words, in the early universe dark matter also helped with the formation of the first atoms and allows them to clump together.

One last consideration regarding what is known about dark matter, it does not electrically interact with normal matter. This means there will be no issues or prohibitions of normal matter moving into dark matter stable space to clump with other matter.

An important note for consideration, the above hypothesis regarding dark matter in the early universe does not affect current cosmological time lines or interactions. Too the contrary, the above information assists in the clumping of normal matter for the formation of stars and galaxies. Additionally, nothing in this paper talks about what dark matter is, or its composition. Rather this paper talks about what dark matter does and/or can do.